Sun, Yian

Dr. Sun is a process engineer at Hazen and Sawyer and visiting scholar at the University of California, Irvine. Her research is aligned with the...

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About Sun, Yian

Dr. Sun is a process engineer at Hazen and Sawyer and visiting scholar at the University of California, Irvine. Her research is aligned with the overarching goal of creating engineering solutions and strategies to improve the sustainability of wastewater and biosolids management whilst addressing emerging challenges, such as climate uncertainties, rapid urbanization, and emerging contaminants. Currently, she primary practices in biosolids management and biological nutrient removal, and is active in the research fields including microplastics in WRRFs and innovative treatment technologies.

Sun, Yian

Titles from this speaker

Adsorption of Common Analgesics On Secondary Microplastics in Treated Wastewater

Abstract

Introduction
Microplastics and pharmaceuticals are both important classes of contaminants of emerging concerns (CEC) in water and wastewater 1-3. The primary route of pharmaceuticals entry into municipal wastewater is through human excretion4,5. Analgesics such as acetaminophen (ACE), ibuprofen (IBU), diclofenac (DCF), are some of the most frequently detected and associated with high concentrations in municipal wastewater due to their common use 6,7. While conventional water resource reclamation facilities (WRRFs) are capable of removing the majority of these pharmaceuticals, high residuals could still be found in wastewater effluent1. Upon their release to the aquatic environment via treated wastewater, they can impose adverse effects on living organisms and aquatic species such as impaired ion regulation, cardiac and reproductive abnormalities, and mortalities 8,9.
Microplastics, commonly defined as plastics pieces between 1 Âµm to 5 mm in at least three dimensions 10,11, and are generally categorized as primary microplastics and secondary microplastics based on sources 2. Primary MPs are intentionally manufactured in small sizes for particular applications; secondary MPs result from the fragmentation of larger plastic particles. Due to microplastics' large surface area and hydrophobicity, microplastics may serve as vectors other contaminants such as heavy metal and pharmaceuticals 12,13. Concentrations of pharmaceuticals, which had been detected in parts per trillion in some effluent samples, could be adsorbed and enriched on microplastics' surfaces 13,14. Regardless of the fact that the majority of microplastics can be retained in sludge 15, abundant microplastics residues can be found in treated wastewater, and potentially transport remaining pharmaceuticals to reclaimed water systems or receiving water bodies. Therefore, it is critical to investigate the interaction between pharmaceutical and microplastics residuals in the final stages of WRRFs. The objective of this study is to understand the adsorption kinetics of frequently detected analgesics on secondary microplastics, simulating pharmaceutical concentrations in typical treated wastewater while using a commonly detected secondary microplastics in wastewater.
Materials and methods
Polypropylene (PP) was chosen in this study as it was found to be abundant in wastewater in previous studies 16-18. Commercial grade PP pellets (2-3 mm) (Poly-fit Â® Polypellets, Fairfield Inc.) were grinded into secondary microplastics in Milli-Q water using a kitchen grinder to simulate the fragmentation of microplastics in sink garbage disposal, and were sieved with stainless steel meshes with openings of 900, 150, and 25 Âµm. Produced secondary PP were examined under a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Raman Spectroscopy for surface morphology and any chemical composition change.
For the purpose of adsorption test, ACE, IBU and DCF solutions were prepared with Milli-Q water (Table 1). Three sets experiments were designed to in order to understand pharmaceutical adsorption on microplastics of different sizes and the adsorption kinetics of each pharmaceutical as well as in a mixture (Table 1). The concentration of solutions was determined based on Adeleye et al. 1.
Following the adsorption, solids were then retrieved via vacuum filtration, and sonicated for 15 minutes for the sequential solid-phase extraction. To more accurately assess the adsorption, both remaining solution as well the resulting solution from solids sonication underwent solid-phase extraction which was modified from Guart et al.19. Samples were then analyzed by a gas chromatography mass spectrometer (GC/MS).
Preliminary results
The Raman Spectra were obtained for secondary PP of all three size ranges (Fig.1). The differences in intensity between the original PP pellets and secondary PP was caused by the difference in material thickness and the chemical nature of the secondary PP was unaltered. According to the SEM images of secondary PPs (Fig.2), the morphology and size were random, thus the production of secondary PPs can be replicated. Figure 3 shows the sorption of the three analgesics on small, medium and large PP particles. In general, the uptake of pharmaceuticals was larger on smaller microplastics which had higher surface area . The cracks and irregularities on the larger PP particles (Fig.2) could result in a high specific surface area 12 regardless of their larger particle size, thus this might be causing large variation in the adsorption of pharmaceuticals on large PPs. The results also revealed that ibuprofen exhibited a higher sorption affinity to PP compared to diclofenac and acetaminophen within 24 hours. The primary purpose of the study is to show that secondary microplastics can act as carriers for pharmaceutical residuals, potentially transporting them into drinking water system via water reclamation and into aquatic environment via discharge. The first stage of the study demonstrates the sorption affinity of the three analgesics and effects of microplastics' size. The study shall continue as listed in Table 1, and be expanded to other types of abundant secondary microplastics such as polyester fibers.
Acknowledgement
The research project is funded by Santa Margarita Water District and Brown & Caldwell.

The present study was conducted evaluate microplastics as vectors for other contaminants of emerging concerns in treated wastewater. Three commonly used and detected Acetaminophen (ACE), Ibuprofen (IBU) and Diclofenac (DCF) and secondary polypropylene (PP) microplastics were used to sorption batch test in this study. The outcome of the study showed microplastics affinity to the selected pharmaceuticals at environmental concentrations and indicated the potential risks of pharmaceuticals for

SpeakerSun, Yian

Presentation time

13:40:00

13:55:00

Session time

13:30:00

15:00:00

TopicIntermediate Level, Disinfection and Public Health, Microconstituents and Contaminants of Emerging Concern (Non-PFAS), Research and Innovation, Watershed Management, Water Quality, and Groundwater

Author(s)

Sun, Yian

Author(s)Yian Sun1,2; Linda Tseng3; Kristen Mast4; Arya Patel3; Edith Carranza1; Vy Tran5; Diego Rosso1,2

Author affiliation(s)Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA1; Water-Energy Nexus Center, University of California, Irvine, CA2; Environmental Studies Program and Departmentof Physics and Astronomy, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY3; Environmental Studies Program and Departmentof Physics and Astronomy, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY4; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA5

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Oct 2022

DOI10.2175/193864718825158610

Volume / Issue

Content sourceWEFTEC

Word count11

Description: Evaluation of Innovative Biosolids Management Strategies with Considerations of...

Evaluation of Innovative Biosolids Management Strategies with Considerations of Circular Water Economy

Abstract

The circular water economy optimizes water resources and minimizes waste and emissions by recycling, recovering and regeneration. Biosolids, an organic and nutrient-rich byproduct of wastewater treatment, are an important and valuable resource that can be beneficially used to support improvements to the circular water economy. However, growing challenges associated with greenhouse gas emissions, limited land and resources, contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs), such as PFAS and microplastics, have begun to threaten the beneficial use of biosolids. In response to the rising challenges, a plethora of innovative biosolids management alternatives have been emerging, providing utilities new perspectives on biosolids treatment, end-use, and pathways to advance the circular water economy via beneficial co-product(s) generation, emissions control/capture, and cost reduction. To comprehensively understand the potential of innovative biosolids management alternatives in addressing these challenges, a holistic evaluation framework (Fig. 1) was developed. The framework encompasses environmental impacts, social impacts, cost-effectiveness, as well as integrability into the circular water economy through the sustainable management of end-products. This presentation will provide valuable and practical information to utilities including: 1) definition, function, and level of readiness of innovative biosolids treatment technologies and 2) a holistic evaluation framework developed to screen innovative technologies for implementation, featuring end-product evaluations. The presentation will inform utilities of innovative solutions to rising wastewater treatment challenges, offer insights to different end-products from innovative technologies, and provide an adaptable tool that utilities can use to select suitable, practical, and sustainable innovative technology(ies) for implementation. This project is funded by the Water Research Foundation (WRF 5169). Innovative Biosolids Treatment Technologies The comprehensive evaluation gathered information from 140 references, including published literature (focused on peer-reviewed literature), gray literature (information from vendors, including WRF's TechLink), information from associations, and responses from a distributed online survey. Technologies captured from the comprehensive search were required to provide at least one of the following benefits compared to established technologies to be considered as 'innovative technology': - Reduce biosolids quantity. - Improve end-product quality. - Enhance energy generation. - Reduce GHG emissions. - Address concerns on emerging contaminants. The findings from this initial evaluation were screened to determine whether the technology is classified as 'innovative,' in alignment with the definition developed by the EPA (2006), where at least one of the following categories must be met by the technology: - Tested at a full-scale demonstration site in this country. - Available and implemented in the United States (U.S.) for less than 5 years. - There is some degree of initial use. - Established technologies overseas with some degree of initial use in the U.S. Within the technology capture, there were 36 innovative treatment technologies identified. The technologies are grouped under several unit operations; thermal conversions, stabilization, thickening, dewatering, drying, and other innovative processes. The results from this evaluation will be presented on an interactive dashboard accessible to utilities and other interested parties. Holistic Evaluation Framework for Innovative Treatment Technologies The framework embraces end-product evaluation, technical capabilities, operation and maintenance requirements, social impacts, regulatory performance, and environmental impacts. The viability of end product biosolids and their co-products, such as energy content, plays a key role in closing the unsustainable loop of resource release to the environment. To this end, end-products are evaluated through the lenses of waste diversion, materials cycling and their benefit predominantly in the natural environment in comparison to the traditional management of biosolids. Key considerations of end-product evaluation are their inherent values, cost recovery potential, market viability, and destruction of CECs. Inherent value reflects the value of constituents in the end-products, such as nutrients and organic matter, and the indirect value of their use (e.g. energy content, carbon offset generation potential). Aggregated inherent values are not indicative of the market value of residuals, but are rather an indication of potential market access and suitability for beneficial use. Management fees and potential market values present opportunities for cost recovery which is typically not available to the baseline product of dewatered biosolids. The values are estimated based on the project team's experience, reports from US contractors, reports from technology vendors, or professional opinion. Figures 2 and 3 present an example result of inherent value and cost recovery potential of the end-products of innovative thermal conversion technologies. The range of beneficial constituents inherent within these residuals will influence market access. Residual products are assessed for their suitability for a range of traditional and innovative markets. Market suitability was assessed on a scale of 0-1 (with 0 being no suitability/access and 1 being full access) based on the project team's experience, industry knowledge, and academic trials and reporting. The environmental impacts of innovative technologies are quantified through energy demand and the greenhouse gas emission during the operation of technology as well as the application of its end-products. Technical performance, operational and maintenance requirements provide information on the robustness, consistency, and scaling flexibility of innovative technologies, helping utilities assess the potential staffing and operating requirements. Social impacts are also included in the evaluation framework, accounting for public opinion and nuisance risks such as odor and noise. The weights of evaluation categories and criteria represent the relative importance of each one and serve as channels to incorporate stakeholders' opinion. The weights are determined based on utilities, project advisory committee, and other stakeholders. Conclusion This project aims to assist utilities in understanding the cross-section and applicability of innovative and sustainable technologies that can fit into a circular water economy, while also meeting the current pressures being faced by the biosolids management community. This presentation will provide practical information on emerging solutions to the challenges in biosolids management and share tools that utilities can use to select options to meet their unique needs.

This paper was presented at the WEF Residuals and Biosolids Conference, June 18-21, 2024.

SpeakerSun, Yian

Presentation time

13:30:00

14:00:00

Session time

13:30:00

15:00:00

SessionLand Application

Session number17

Session locationOklahoma City Convention Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

TopicCircular Economy, Innovative Technology, Research

Author(s)

Sun, Yian

Author(s)Y. Sun1, C. Evans2, M. Teshima2, A. Lewis1, D. Dursun1, M. Abu-Orf M. Blate1

Author affiliation(s)Hazen and Sawyer 1; Sylvis 2; Sylvis 2; Hazen and Sawyer 1; Hazen and Sawyer 1; Hazen and Sawyer1; Hazen and Sawyer1;

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Jun 2024

DOI10.2175/193864718825159442

Volume / Issue

Content sourceResiduals and Biosolids Conference

Word count13

Leveraging Glycerol-Driven and Primary-Effluent-Driven PdNA within Advanced Wastewater Treatment Facility

Abstract

Introduction The Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts (LACSD) and Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD) have collaborated to evaluate the development of the Pure Water Southern California (PWSC) Program. The PWSC Program would implement a full-scale advanced water treatment facility (AWTF) to produce up to 150 million gallons per day (mgd) for indirect and potentially direct potable reuse. One of the AWTF options considered would include a new biological nutrient removal (BNR) facility followed by RO/UV/AOP. The new BNR facility would be constructed at the existing A.K. Warren Water Resource Facility (Warren Facility), which is a 400 mgd capacity high purity oxygen activated sludge facility. The AWTF and BNR upgrades are intended to achieve a nitrate <19 mg/L, prior to the RO/UV/AOP facility. Partial nitrification/denitrification/anammox (PANDA/PdNA) was identified by the PWSC team as a promising approach to intensify BNR, by facilitating reduction of supplemental carbon needs and potentially increasing TIN removal capacity, without increasing tank volume. This work summarizes findings from an ongoing multi-year pilot effort focused on validating the PANDA/PdNA concept within a large-scale reuse program. Specifically, the objectives were to: i) demonstrate the ability to achieve nutrient targets reliably by intensifying a tertiary MBBR and IFAS configuration with PANDA/PdNA; ii) validate carbon savings that can be achieved by implementing PANDA/PdNA; and iii) investigate the feasibility of incorporating primary effluent driven partial denitrification to further reduce projected operating costs associated with the PWSC Program. Methods Tertiary MBBR: A tertiary MBBR was configured as a step-feed BNR process, consisting of alternated aerobic and anoxic cells, with zone configuration and influent feed split (Figure 1). Both primary effluent (PE) and a glycerol-based supplemental carbon source (MicroC 2000) were used for supporting denitrification in anoxic zones. This flexible configuration allowed for performing both conventional BNR and PANDA/PdNA. Tertiary IFAS: The MBBR system was modified to include clarifiers to retain flocculant biomass. Additionally, a Solitax probe (Hach) was added in the last cell of the system to monitor the mixed liquor suspended solid concentration in the system. The first aerobic zone of Tertiary MBBR was converted to anoxic because the RAS feed was able to recycle sufficient NOx load into the that zone, negating the need for nitrification in that zone. Monitoring: Composite samples (24-hr) were used to monitor influent and effluent solids, organics and nutrients. Profile samples were grabbed from different cells across the system periodically to analyze for nitrogen species and organics (Hach TNT). Operational Modes: Three different operational modes were tested: 1) Hybrid conventional BNR mode in MBBR, during which both PE and glycerol were supplied to the system to perform full denitrification; 2) PANDA/PdNA mode in MBBR, during which both PE and glycerol were supplied to the system to perform partial denitrification and anoxic ammonia removal via anammox; and 3) PANDA/PdNA mode in IFAS (on-going), during which suspended biomass is retained in the system by using a clarifier. Results and Discussion Hybrid BNR Mode: The system operated in this mode from July 2022 to April 2023. Findings were reported in Sun et al., 2023. Briefly, both the ammonia target of 1 mg/L and the NOx target of 16 mg/L were achieved during hybrid BNR mode operation, confirming that a conventional BNR option could reliably achieve nutrient targets. MBBR PANDA Mode: The MBBR system was transitioned to PANDA/PdNA mode in May 2023 and operated until October 2023. Key findings are as follows:

*The system was able to reliably achieve the effluent ammonia and NOx targets of 1 mg/L and 16 mg/L, respectively (Figure 2). It was also possible to further decrease effluent TIN as low as ~ 9 mg/L, without increasing total system volume (Figure 2).

*Carbon usage was tracked during different phases of operation (Table 1). During the hybrid BNR and PANDA phases, approximately 7 to 9% of the total flow was comprised of PE. The COD addition/N removal ratio reduced from ~3.9 lb sCOD/lb NOx during hybrid BNR phase to ~1.2 lb sCOD/lb NOx during the PANDA/PdNA phase. This reduction was due to enhanced anammox activity and represents greater than 70% savings in supplemental carbon needs.

*Investigation into PdNA activity within the system revealed that partial denitrification was likely driven by both PE (first anoxic) and glycerol (second anoxic), with PE driven PdNA accounting for 3 to 7 mgN/L anoxic ammonia removal (Figure 3) and glycerol driven PdNA accounting for up to 9.4 mgN/L anoxic ammonia removal (Table 1). Batch tests confirmed that PE and internally stored carbon could be used to successfully drive partial denitrification if sufficient control of carbon, nitrate and ammonia is provided (Figure 4). PANDA/PdNA in IFAS Mode: In November 2023, the system was transitioned to operate in IFAS PANDA/PdNA mode. The IFAS phase of operation will be completed in mid-2024, the results of which and lessons learned will be presented during the conference.

The Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts are exploring nitrogen removal options to address potential reuse and regulatory drivers. A tertiary step-feed moving bed biofilm reactor (tMBBR) configuration was evaluated as an approach. The tMBBR configuration was successfully pilot tested and demonstrated the ability to meet nitrogen removal targets. It was also found that by leveraging glycerol-driven and PE-driven PdNA, aeration energy and carbon savings can be ~28% and up to 70%, respectively.

SpeakerSun, Yewei

Presentation time

11:00:00

11:30:00

Session time

10:30:00

12:00:00

SessionAnoxic Reactor Design for Low Energy BNR

Session number520

Session locationRoom 335

TopicEnergy Production, Conservation, and Management, Facility Operations and Maintenance, Intermediate Level, Municipal Wastewater Treatment Design, Nutrients

Author(s)

Sun, Yewei, Mansell, Bruce, Coracero, Ariana, Farrokh Shad, Mojtaba, Tsai, Raymond, Pitt, Paul, Khunjar, Wendell, Latimer, Ron, Danker, Bryce, Sun, Yian

Author(s)Y. Sun1, B.O. Mansell2, A.K. Coracero3, M. Farrokh Shad2, R. Tsai4, P.A. Pitt5, W. Khunjar6, R.J. Latimer7, B. Danker8, Y. Sun5, M. Farrokh Shad2

Author affiliation(s)1Hazen and Sawyer, VA, 2LA County Sanitation District, CA, 3Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts, CA, 4LACSD, CA, 5Hazen and Sawyer, CA, 6Hazen & Sawyer PC, VA, 7Hazen and Sawyer, GA, 8Hazen, CA

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Oct 2024

DOI10.2175/193864718825159618

Volume / Issue

Content sourceWEFTEC

Word count11

Market Value for Various Biosolids Products from Innovative Biosolids Technologies (WRF Project #5169)

Abstract

...Introduction: Biosolids are an organic and nutrient-rich product that are an important and valuable resource than can be used beneficially to support the advancement of the circular water economy. However, the market for the beneficial use of biosolids has been increasing challenged by concerns regarding high cost and limited land application opportunities, public perception, and contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs), such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl acids (PFAS) and microplastics. In response to these rising challenges, a range of innovative biosolids management alternatives have been emerging that can help utilities overcome some of these challenges. To comprehensively understand the potential of innovative biosolids management alternatives to address these challenges, a holistic evaluation framework (...Figure 1) was developed. ...Objective: The information presented provides valuable and practical information to utilities including: 1) definition, function, and level of readiness of innovative biosolids treatment technologies and 2) a market assessment and value of the various end products identified through the technology screening. The proposed presentation will inform utilities of emerging technologies to address specific challenges, offer insight to different end-products from innovative technologies, and provide an assessment of diverse end-products from an aggregated dollar value perspective. ...Status: The project is funded by the Water Research Foundation (WRF 5169) and will produce an adaptable tool that utilities can use to select suitable, practical, and sustainable innovative technologies for implementation. The project is ongoing and will be completed the second half of 2024. Three of the six tasks have been completed. ...Methodology: The comprehensive technology review and evaluation gathered information from more than 140 references, including published literature (focused on peer-reviewed literature), gray literature (information from vendors, including WRF's TechLink), information from various associations, and responses from an online survey. Once the initial number of innovative technologies was compiled, several screenings were conducted to determine applicability and if it would advance to further evaluation. Technologies captured from the comprehensive search were required to provide at least one of the following benefits compared to established technologies to be considered as 'innovative technology.'

*Reduce biosolids quantity.

*Improve end-product quality.

*Enhance energy generation.

*Reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

*Reduce emerging contaminants. The findings from the initial evaluation were then screened to determine whether the technology is classified as 'innovative,' in alignment with the definition developed by the EPA (1). The innovative biosolids management technologies identified produce a variety of valuable products. To assess the markets for these products, an evaluation was conducted comparing the value of these end products to a standard of Class A/EQ dewatered cake. The suite of end products evaluated is presented in Table 1. Information was gathered from various sources including scientific journal articles, industry reports, technology vendors, characterization data, and professional experience. End-products, including a baseline product of Class A/EQ dewatered cake, were assessed on the following categories:

*Inherent Value

*Market Suitability / Access

*Cost of Management / Market Value

*Contaminants of Emerging Concern Removal ...Findings Following the initial screening 35 technologies met the defined criteria for innovation, seen in ...Table 2. The results from this evaluation will be presented on an accessible interactive dashboard for utilities and other interested parties (...Figure 2). The presented information will include definitions, fact sheets, benefits to existing technologies and more. The innovative technologies identified resulted in a variety of end products that were further evaluated in the context of the existing market. To contextualize the value of the various end products, they were evaluated from a cost perspective, specifically aggregated dollar value of nutrients and carbon, shown in ...Figure 3. On a per-dry ton basis, biochar and struvite have the highest inherent value (...Figure 3), and biochar has value in the greatest number of constituents/properties, suggesting a relatively wider market applicability. Market access (...Table 3), which is based on professional opinion/experience, assigns a score of 0 (low access) to 1 (high access) and supports the assertion that biochar has wide market access. The 'net market benefit' (...Figure 4) equals the market access score multiplied by the average cost of management and expresses the potential for cost recovery. The results of the market evaluation clearly show the positive net market benefit of end products from innovative biosolids management technologies in comparison to the baseline Class A/EQ biosolids. Each end product greatly reduces costs to the utility compared to Class A/EQ biosolids, and often even had potential to bring revenue to the utility. The identified innovative biosolids treatment technologies can diversify end product outlets by providing a wider range of accessible markets.

The information presented aims to provides valuable and practical information to utilities through a market assessment and valuation of the various end-products identified through the technology screening. The results will inform utilities of emerging technologies to address specific challenges, offer insight to different end-products from innovative technologies, and provide an assessment of end-products from an aggregated dollar value perspective.

SpeakerLewis, Asa

Presentation time

16:00:00

16:30:00

Session time

15:30:00

17:00:00

SessionPFAS in Biosolids: Remove and Track it

Session number417

Session locationRoom 238

TopicBiosolids and Residuals, Intermediate Level, PFAS

Author(s)

Lewis, Asa, Evans, Christian, Teshima, Mark, Sun, Yian, Abu-Orf, Mohammad, Knowles, Paul, Higgins, Matthew, Blate, Micah

Author(s)A. Lewis1, C. Evans2, M. Teshima2, Y. Sun3, M.M. Abu-Orf1, P. Knowles4, M.J. Higgins5, M.D. Blate1

Author affiliation(s)1Hazen and Sawyer, PA, 2Sylvis Environmental, BC, 2, 3Hazen and Sawyer, CA, 4Hazen & Sawyer, NY, 5Bucknell University, PA

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Oct 2024

DOI10.2175/193864718825159578

Volume / Issue

Content sourceWEFTEC

Word count14

Microplastic Extraction From Wastewater: Comparison And Proposal Of Methods

Abstract

Abstract: Research on the extraction of microplastics from wastewater often overlooks small microplastics and fails to agree on a universal method that effectively reduces organic matter content while preserving microplastics in a timely and cost-effective manner. We compare common methods and propose an alternative method not previously tested on wastewater. Introduction and Background Microplastics (MPs), defined as solid particles of synthetic polymers smaller than 5 mm, are an emerging contaminant ubiquitously occurring in the environment [1-3]. Water resource recovery facilities (WRRFs) are an important pathway for MPs to enter the environment [4-6] via biosolids application [7] and effluent discharge [8] . Despite high removal rates, facilities can discharge a wide magnitude of MPs daily into the environment [9], [10]. There persists a lack of consensus on an accepted universal recovery method for a given matrix, with most MP extraction studies having been performed on aquatic sediments [11-13]. Additionally, many studies study polymers much larger than those typically found in wastewater-150-330 µm for primary MPs [14]-which can hinder the applicability of their findings. Removing most or all organic matter while maintaining polymer integrity is challenging, leading to the rise of a plethora of extraction methods published in literature. This study was conducted to investigate the potential errors associated with widely used procedures. The results will showcase the reliability of analytical procedures of microplastics analysis, as well as inform future method development. Methodology Here we present a summary of the work (Table 1), which is fully documented in the paper and presentation. After comparing six protocols from four common extraction methods that are inexpensive, rapid, and easy to perform, we used the least harsh organic matter digestion method with oil extraction, the latter of which is a method that has not been widely tested on MPs in wastewater and relies on the hydrophobic properties of MPs rather than polymer density. This study uses three size ranges of four polymers. The size range was selected to demonstrate the effect of size on extraction efficiency, while polymer types were selected for their abundance in wastewater [15], and their range in density-both higher and lower than that of water-was used to demonstrate the efficacy of oil extraction regardless of density. Results and Discussion Inorganic Digestion Methods All extraction methods had average recovery rates above 96% across polymer types and sizes, while the range of recovery varied considerably between methods. F1 had a narrow recovery range (92%-100%), indicating that it is suitable across polymer types. Iron impurities formed during the production of KOH [16] and the iron catalyst used in Fenton's reagent can result in precipitation of ferric solids. Of the three Fenton's reagent methods, F2 experienced the greatest amount of iron precipitation, containing 17.3 mg on average. Mass retention of MPs tended to decrease with smaller size, although PP samples had a relatively stable recovery. Statistical analysis via one-way ANOVA tests (α = 0.05) with controlled polymer type and size (degrees of freedom = 5, F-critical = 3.106) found that extraction methods had statistically significant recovery rates for several data groups. Additionally, all tests that did not find a difference between recovery methods were statistically insignificant. However, a larger sample size could have resulted in more statistically significant results. Small MPs were evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to compare changes in surface morphology before and after treatment. Images for virgin polymers and each extraction method on small PS spheres are shown below (Fig. 2). HCl deforms the entire shape, while KOH, H2O2, and F1 create flaking and possible minor precipitation. F2 covers much of the surface in iron precipitate, while F3 creases the surface. Oil Extraction Methods The oil extraction procedure (OEP) with oleic acid and canola oil showed average recoveries of 91% and 87%, respectively, from primary influent, and 95% and 92%, respectively, from tertiary effluent. In tertiary effluent, oleic acid outperforms canola oil for all polymer types and sizes except medium LDPE (Fig. 3). Overall, there is no significant difference in removal between MP sizes. Similar results (90-100%) can be found for other studies that performed OEP on solid and aqueous matrices [17], [18]. However, these two studies used a lower MP size limit of 200 and 300 µm, respectively, which does not account for most MPs found in wastewater [19], [20]. Further, few if any studies on MP extraction via OEP are evaluated on wastewater, whose composition differs considerably from surface water. The full paper includes an expanded discussion of the role of commercial oil grades on the variability and repeatability of the experiments. Conclusion

*The best method is F1 due to low precipitation and relatively high recovery stability.

*Combining F1 with OEP may further enhance this method by increasing non-MP organic matter removal while minimizing MP degradation.

*In testing polymers that are representative of those found within wastewater, these results can be applied directly to wastewater-microplastic analysis.

This study compares six common digestion protocols for the extraction of microplastics from wastewater. Fenton's reagent is a suitable method when operational parameters are optimized. This study also proposes an extraction protocol--combined Fenton's reagent and oil extraction--as an alternative to traditional methods including density separation, concluding that the proposed protocol is effective for extracting microplastics along the treatment train in wastewater treatment facilities.

SpeakerAustin, Elinor

Presentation time

16:30:00

17:00:00

Session time

15:30:00

17:00:00

SessionMicroplastics in WRRFs: Research, Risk, and Regulation Updates

Session number222

Session locationRoom 238

TopicBiosolids and Residuals, Disinfection and Public Health, Intermediate Level, Microconstituents and Contaminants of Emerging Concern (Non-PFAS), Research and Innovation

Author(s)

Austin, Elinor, Austin, Dana, Wong, Jimmy, Sun, Yian, Rosso, Diego

Author(s)E. Austin1, D. Austin2, J. Wong3, Y. Sun3, D. Rosso2

Author affiliation(s)1University of California At Irvine, CA, 2University of California, Irvine, CA, 3Hazen and Sawyer, CA

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Oct 2024

DOI10.2175/193864718825159617

Volume / Issue

Content sourceWEFTEC

Word count10

Microplastics in Biosolids Treatment Stream: Abundance, Fate, and Methodologies

Abstract

Introduction and Objectives Water Resource Recovery Facilities (WRRFs) passively collect various contaminants which has led to concern about potential environmental impacts downstream. Of particular interest, microplastic (MP) contamination has remained a concern due to various sources of MPs into wastewater, including municipal waste, roadway runoff, and industrial discharge. Conventional wastewater treatment processes have been effective in separating MPs driven by physical separation technologies, consequently accumulating MPs in the solids stream and biosolids [1,2]. Land application of biosolids presents avenues for MPs in biosolids to enter and accumulate in landfills, agricultural soil, plants, soil biota, and further transport into the environment. Understanding MPs' occurrence, fate, and transformation in biosolids treatment is crucial to promote the beneficial and sustainable use of biosolids. Information on MPs across the solids stream is yet to be synthesized to assist stakeholders in understanding risks associated with MPs, and there is still a lack of consensus regarding reproducible analytical methods to quantify MPs by mass and count. To this end, a comprehensive critical review, capturing data and knowledge from 51 studies including peer-reviewed journals articles, reports, and conference proceedings, was conducted to 1) inform the state of knowledge of MPs in solids stream, including their occurrence, fate and characteristics; 2) identify knowledge gaps of MPs in solid unit processes (e.g. digesters); 3) inform the development standard operation procedures for empirical analysis. This study is part of the Water Research Foundation project #5221. Findings

*Abundance and Fate of Microplastics in Solids Stream The literature review found that the abundance of MPs in different solids process units varies by several orders of magnitude (Fig. 1). Moreover, the number of facilities studied, and concentrations reported vary dramatically across the world. The lack of consistent and representative sampling methods across the solid stream poses challenges in developing an understanding of how different sludge treatment processes affect MPs and quantifying the transformation of MPs. Based on a literature review of intra-facility variation of MPs in solids treatment stream (post-primary treatment), the quantity of MPs does not significantly change from sludge generation, thickening to stabilization, but decrease after dewatering, which indicates potential accumulation of MPs in side streams (Fig.2). These side streams often return to the headworks of WRRFs; therefore, these streams may represent an additional 'catch and release' point. A total of 31 types of polymers were reported in literature. Polyester, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyamide, polyethylene terephthalate are the most frequently reported and abundant polymers. Polyester and polyamide are commonly used for synthetic fabric and often appear as MP fibers in both wastewater and sludge.

*Accumulation of Microplastics in Biosolids Amongst 51 studies reviewed, a median of 14,900 pieces of MPs (Std. Dev = 476,498) were found to be deposited into soil per dry kilogram of biosolids applied. Maximum sludge value is significantly higher at 169,000,000 particles per kg. In comparison, MPs in soil are observed to range from single digits per kg to approximately 40,000 particles per kilogram. With land application of biosolids, MPs content in soil can increase hundreds of pieces per kg according to literature [4].

*Methodologies for Microplastics Quantification in Biosolids Sampling, sample processing, and analytical methods from literature reviewed is summarized in Table 1. The methods of the studies reviewed utilize automated sampling system and/or pumps for collecting samples with low solids content, e.g. secondary sludge, digested sludge, whereas high solids content samples are manually taken using buckets or shovels. The studies' sample processing procedures typically follow: density separation, chemical digestion, and vacuum filtration. The quantification of MPs in literature is count-based and relies on vibrational spectroscopy, which is faced with technical challenges including laborious sample preparation and analysis, spectral identification errors, higher size limit, miscounts due to fragmentation, and reduced number of samples due to the high cost associated with these types of analysis methods. To address these challenges in the later empirical analysis of WRF 5221, a dual quantification approach will be adopted (Fig. 3). Pyrolysis-gas chromatography /mass spectroscopy will quantify MPs in biosolids by mass, which is advantageous due to highly accurate quantification of polymers without time-intensive sample preparation or analysis, whilst Raman spectroscopy will provide the MPs characteristics for comparison with literature, including polymer type, size distribution, and morphology. Conclusion This literature review showcases the state of knowledge on MPs in solids treatment stream. It informs utilities of the abundance and fate of MPs in different process units and in relation to facility characteristics and location, providing information that utilities can use to assess potential risks. The project also addresses shortcomings associated with commonly used analytical methods by measuring repeatability as a core element of the study design which will be useful for future studies.

A l review, capturing data and knowledge from 51 studies including peer reviewed journals articles, reports, and conference proceedings, was conducted to 1) inform the state of knowledge of microplastics in solids stream, including their occurrence, fate and characteristics; 2) identify knowledge gaps of Microplastics in solid unit processes (e.g. digesters); 3) inform validated standard operation procedures for empirical analysis. This study is part of the Water Research Foundation.

SpeakerSun, Yian

Presentation time

16:00:00

16:30:00

Session time

15:30:00

17:00:00

SessionMicroplastics in WRRFs: Research, Risk, and Regulation Updates

Session number222

Session locationRoom 238

TopicBiosolids and Residuals, Disinfection and Public Health, Intermediate Level, Microconstituents and Contaminants of Emerging Concern (Non-PFAS), Research and Innovation

Author(s)

Sun, Yian, Walther, Shelly, Dursun, Derya, Abu-Orf, Mohammad, Cook, Cayla

Author(s)Y. Sun1, S. Walther2, D. Dursun1, M. Abu-Orf3, C. Cook4

Author affiliation(s)1Hazen and Sawyer, CA, 2LA County Sanitation Districts, CA, 3, NY, 4Hazen and Sawyer, AZ

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Oct 2024

DOI10.2175/193864718825159533

Volume / Issue

Content sourceWEFTEC

Word count10

Microplastics in Biosolids Treatment Stream: Abundance, Fate and Methodologies

Abstract

Microplastics is an important class of contaminants of emerging concerns. In scientific literature, microplastics typically refer to plastics particles, fibers, and fragments between 1 µm and 5 mm. Water Resource Reclamation Facilities (WRRFs) are conduits between the waste sources and the environment. WRRFs collect a large quantity of microplastics from various sources, including municipal waste, roadway run off, industrial discharge. Conventional wastewater treatment processes have been effective in separating microplastics driven by physical-chemical properties of microplastics, and consequently, microplastics accumulate in solids stream and biosolids (Blair et al., 2019; Bui et al., 2020). Treated biosolids have a range of disposal pathways, among which agricultural land application accounts for approximately 50% of annual total biosolids disposed. Land application of biosolids presents avenues for microplastics in biosolids to enter and accumulate in agricultural soil. The accumulation of microplastics in agricultural soils can lead to various adverse implications for soil quality by impacting soil structure, water dynamics, and soil biota. Microplastics that enter the terrestrial environment through biosolids can further mobilize to different environments, through storm runoff and aerosolization. Understanding microplastics' occurrence, fate, and transformation in biosolids treatment is crucial to mitigate the above-mentioned adverse effects of microplastics in biosolids and to promote the beneficial and sustainable use of biosolids. Information on microplastics cross the solids treatment steam is yet to be summarized or synthesized to assist stakeholders understand risks associated with microplastics on a high level. To this end, a comprehensive critical review was conducted to inform the state of knowledge of microplastics studies regarding sludge and biosolids and synthesizes data from those studies, to address the lack of understanding of microplastics in those unit processes. This study captures data and knowledge from 51 studies including peer-reviewed journals articles, reports, and conference proceedings. The proposed presentation will cover the abundance, fate and characteristics of microplastics in solids stream and biosolids, as well as methodologies for analyzing microplastics in sludge and biosolids samples. This study is part of a Water Research Foundation funded project (WRF 5221). Abundance and Fate of Microplastics in Solids Stream and Biosolids Wastewater sludge can be a sink of microplastics as a large portion of microplastics in wastewater can be separated during skimming and sedimentation. The abundance of microplastics in each type of sludge varies over multiple orders of magnitude (Fig. 1). The lack of consistent sampling across the entire solid treatment train poses challenges in developing an understanding of how different sludge treatment processes affect microplastics and quantifying the transformation of microplastics. Based on the intra-facility variation of microplastics in solids treatment stream, the level of microplastics does not significantly change from sludge generation, thickening to stabilization, but reduces after dewatering, showcasing potential accumulation of microplastics in sidestreams. Innovative biosolids treatment technologies, such as pyrolysis and hydrothermal liquefaction, provide opportunities to remove microplastics along with other persistent contaminants of emerging concerns. On average, 14,900 pieces of microplastics can be deposited into soil per dry kilogram of biosolids applied, revealing biosolids as a pathway for microplastics to enter the terrestrial environment. Furthermore, maximum sludge values are significantly higher than the average at 169,000,000 particles per kg. Sources in literature indicate microplastics increasing '280 items/kg and 430 items/kg' with sludge application (Yang et al., 2021). Soil concentrations are observed to range from single digits per kg to approximately 40,000 pieces per kilogram. The average concentration of microplastics in soil is approximately within 100 particles per kg to 1,000 particles per kg for a rough order of magnitude comparison. Approximately half of the microplastics found in sludge and biosolids are in the shape of fibers, which indicates laundry discharge is an important source of microplastics in wastewater and biosolids. Microplastics of Different Characteristics: Polymer Types and Morphology A total number of 31 types of polymers were reported in literature. Polyester, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyamide, polyethylene teraphatalate are the most frequently reported and abundant types of polymers. Polyester and polyamide are commonly used for making synthetic fabric (Sun et al., 2019). Thus, they often appear as microplastics fibers in wastewater and biosolids and their prevalence is in line with the abundance of fibers in various types of sludge. The polymer types abundant in biosolids align with the ones in wastewater reported in previous studies (Bui et al., 2020; El Hayany et al., 2022), showing that laundry discharge and storm runoff are major sources of microplastics in wastewater as well as biosolids. Source control to reduce microplastics load in raw sewage could be an effective measure for microplastics reduction in solids stream. Additionally, the similar abundance of polymer types in liquid and solids stream processes also reveals that the accumulation of microplastics in solids stream is not polymer type specific. Methodologies for Microplastics Quantification in Biosolids Sampling and analytical methods used in literature are summarized to inform future analysis of microplastics in sludge and biosolids. The sampling of low solids content samples, e.g. secondary sludge, digested sludge, can utilize automated sampling system and pumps, whereas high solids content samples are manually taken using containers or shovels. The sample processing procedure typically follows: density separation, chemical digestion, and vacuum filtration (Fig. 2). The quantification of microplastics in literature is count-based and relies on vibrational spectroscopy. Mass-based quantification should also be adopted for future studies due to the potential fragmentation of microplastics. Conclusion The literature review conducted by the Project Team showcases the state of knowledge on microplastics in solids treatment stream. It informs utilities of the abundance, fate of microplastics in different process units and in relation to facility characteristics and location, providing information that utilities can use to assess potential risks. It also provides insights into the origins of microplastics in biosolids, which help utilities identify potential entry points into the water treatment and wastewater systems. Currently there is no standard method for microplastics analysis in sludge and biosolids. The summary of reported methods in literature will provide the utilities valuable references and guidance on producing reliable, reproducible data.

This paper was presented at the WEF Residuals and Biosolids Conference, June 18-21, 2024.

SpeakerSun, Yian

Presentation time

16:15:00

16:45:00

Session time

15:45:00

16:45:00

SessionEmerging Issues

Session number09

Session locationOklahoma City Convention Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

TopicBiosolids treatment, Microplastics, Research

Author(s)

Sun, Yian

Author(s)Y. Sun1, M. Abu-Orf 1 C. Cook1

Author affiliation(s)Hazen and Sawyer 1; Hazen and Sawyer 1; Hazen and Sawyer 1;

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Jun 2024

DOI10.2175/193864718825159471

Volume / Issue

Content sourceResiduals and Biosolids Conference

Word count10

Description: Microplastics Separation Using Stainless Steel Mini-Hydrocyclones Fabricated With...

Microplastics Separation Using Stainless Steel Mini-Hydrocyclones Fabricated With Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)

Abstract

Introduction
Microplastics (MPs) have been widely detected in natural and engineered water systems. Removing MPs from water resources is becoming a major challenge for water and wastewater treatment facilities1,2. The recalcitrant chemical properties of MPs allows them to easily transport, accumulate, and persist in the environment3,4. To address the challenges of water resource security under the context of climate change, an increasing amount of effort from governments and water agencies has been devoted to water reclamation. Removal of these contaminants from water and wastewater is a major problem in water reclamation largely due to the lack of verified treatment technologies that eliminate MPs5. Hydrocyclones, a hydraulic device widely used in industries such as oil refinement, food processing, and pharmaceutical manufacturing, have been adopted to process plastic waste and could be potentially used for microplastic separation6â€“8. Mini-hydrocyclones (MHCs) are designed with smaller nominal diameter and cut size and are proven to be more efficient for fine particle separation9,10. This study is the first to incorporate MHCs that were designed and manufactured by 3D printing with stainless steel to separate microplastic particles from water. The objective of this study is to investigate the separation efficiency of fine MP particles using MHCs both single-stage and in series.
Material and Methods
Mini-hydrocyclones of two different configurations were designed for separating MPs with densities lower (MHCL) and higher (MHCH) than water density, respectively (Fig.1). The design parameters (Fig.2, Table 1) (i.e. geometrical proportion) for MHCH were modified from Bradley11 since its parameters were more suitable for lower cut sizes. The geometrical proportions from Yang et al.12 were selected as the reference for MHCL because the density and particle size ranges of the medium to be separated in the reference paper are similar to those in this study. Three metal MHCs (MHCH1, MHCH2, and MHCL) (Fig.1) were manufactured using 3D-printing technology from Shanghai Yuerui 3D Technology Co., Ltd. EOS Stainless Steel 316L was used as the material for the three MHCs. The surface roughness of the hydrocyclones' inner wall is 5 Â± 2 Âµm, which can reduce the effect of inner wall friction on MHC flow field during separation. Polyamide (PA) (Ï = 1150 kg/m3) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) (Ï = 924kg/m3) are abundantly found in various aquatic environment2,3,6,15,16. Thus, PA and LDPE particles were selected to represent MPs with high and low densities, respectively. The separation efficiency test was conducted using single-stage MHCs (Fig.3a) and MHCs in series (Fig. 3b). Operational parameters including flow rate, split ratio, particle concentration, and feed pressure were also varied to assess MHCs' separation performance under different conditions. Overflow, underflow, and feed samples were collected and processed to calculate total mass separation efficiency (Et) and grade separation efficiency (Eg). Contamination control was implemented throughout the study, including thoroughly cleaning the hydraulic circuit after each trial and covering MHC inlets and outlets with aluminum foil to prevent rusting. Negative control samples were also taken from the system, and an insignificant amount of plastic particle contamination was determined.
Results and Discussion
The optimal operational parameters of the MHCs were determined from the single-stage arrangements. Both MHCL and MHCH1 were operated with flow rate (Q) varying from 0.3 GPM to 0.6 GPM and split ratio (R) varying from 15% to 45%. A separation efficiency peak was observed in MHCL and MHCHat a larger flow rate (0.6 GPM) (Fig.4) because the MP particles experienced larger centrifugal forces due to increases in tangential velocities. In addition, (R) of 35% was found to be optimal for both MHC configurations (Fig.5). Split ratios less than 35% resulted in unstable and insufficient MP removal of all sizes, while split ratios higher than 35% amplified turbulence and diminished removal by breaking up MP aggregates. A performance comparison test was conducted between MHCH1 and MHCH2 to determine the effects of different inner diameters. It was found that the head loss in MHCH1 was greater than that in MHCH2 (Fig. 6). This was because the shear force had stronger effects on the fluid mixture in MHCH1 due to its smaller internal chamber.
Moreover, MHCs were arranged in series (MHCH1 to MHCH2 and MHCL and MHCH1) (Fig.3b). An improvement of 10-15% was observed in the separation of PA particles when the two MHCHs were used, demonstrating how MHCs in series can enhance the separation of MPs with similar densities. The separation efficiencies of each individual MHC reduced when MHCH and MHCL were arranged in series. This can be explained by the fact PA and LDPE particles were moving in opposite directions and the increased particle collision subsequently reduced particle velocity.
Conclusions and Future Studies
This study demonstrated the use of additively manufactured MHCs as an alternative for MP removal from water. Under optimized operational parameters, the separation efficiency can reach up to 95% and 87% for high and low density microplastics, respectively. In general, larger particles or MP aggregates are more efficiently separated. Mini-hydrocyclones in series were observed to separate microplastics of different densities, however separation efficiency can be improved via operational parameters or chemical enhancement. The study shall continue with further tests of microplastics in various aquatic environment and with chemical enhancement, as well as secondary microplastics.
Acknowledgements
The research project is funded by Santa Margarita Water District and Brown & Caldwell.

Mini-hydrocyclones (MHCs) have been used as an efficient and low-maintenance method for phase separation. In this study, MHCs were designed and fabricated in stainless steel with 3D printing to separate microplastics from different water matrices. Mini-hydrocyclones can effectively separate MPs of different densities when arranged in single-stages as well as in series. The results of this study demonstrate MHCs' potential for large-scale application in microplastic separation for industrial

SpeakerSun, Yian

Presentation time

14:30:00

14:45:00

Session time

13:30:00

15:00:00

Author(s)

Sun, Yian

Author(s)Yian Sun1,2; Gina Habil1; Lin Liu1,3; Diego Rosso1,2

Author affiliation(s)Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,University of California, Irvine, CA1; Water-Energy Nexus Centre,University of California, Irvine, CA2, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, PR China3

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Oct 2022

DOI10.2175/193864718825158674

Volume / Issue

Content sourceWEFTEC

Word count13

Description: Monitoring of Microplastics in a Water Reclamation Process with an Improved Recovery...

Monitoring of Microplastics in a Water Reclamation Process with an Improved Recovery Method

Abstract

Microplastics is posing new challenges in wastewater treatment and water reclamation. Water resource reclamation facilities (WRRFs) can be a barrier as well as an avenue for them to enter the environment. In this study, commonly used methods for recovering microplastics from wastewater samples were evaluated, and modifications were made to improve the efficiency of recovering microplastics while preserving their integrity and reducing mass loss. Such method was employed to monitor the occurrence of microplastics in a local WRRF during fall season 2020. Process samples were characterized using optical microscopy and Raman Spectroscopy. Polyester fibers were found to be the most abundant type of microplastics at all stages sampled. An overall amount of 80% of microplastics was removed from wastewater, and the majority reduction took place in primary treatment. Given the potential re-use of wastewater effluent, our results highlight the needs to further reduce microplastics in final effluent.

Microplastics is a rising challenge in water reclamation. Monitoring microplastics in wastewater with a reliable and consistent method is an important step towards eliminating them from wastewater for water reclamation purposes. To this end, the paper proposes a modified method to recover and characterize microplastics from wastewater samples, and includes an analysis of the abundance, characteristics and removal of microplastics in a local water resource reclamation facility. Limitations and future work are also discussed in this study.

SpeakerSun, Yian

Presentation time

11:20:00

11:35:00

Session time

11:00:00

12:30:00

SessionMicroplastics: Whose Issue Is This?

Session number413

TopicBiosolids and Residuals, Disinfection and Public Health, Microconstituents, Water Reuse and Reclamation

Author(s)

Yian Sun

Author(s)Y. Sun1,2; Z. Kleinmeyer1,3; D. Drake1; L. Liu4; R. Johnson5; R. Pasco5; D. Rosso1,2;

Author affiliation(s)Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 1Water-Energy Nexus Center, University of California, Irvine, CA2Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA3Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, CH4Santa Margarita Water District, Rancho Santa Margarita, CA5

SourceProceedings of the Water Environment Federation

Document typeConference Paper

PublisherWater Environment Federation

Print publication date Oct 2021

DOI10.2175/193864718825158123

Volume / Issue

Content sourceWEFTEC

Word count14

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